Environmental Biology: Unit 2 Compilation

The following is a unit compilation for chapters 6, 10 (10.1,10.2, 10.6), 7 (7.1 – 7.4),11

Table of Contents

Chapter 6

Topic:

Environmental Conservation

Sub-topics:

British Columbia Preserve

Forests of the World

Forest Management and Protecting Forests

Different Types of Wood Harvesting

Forest Fires

Grasslands

Parks and Preserves

British Columbia Preserve

British Columbia has decided to protect the western coastline. It is a large preserve about half the size of Switzerland. This is a temperate rainforest there are mass amount of diverse species including a rare black bear that is white or cream in color. The natives call this bear the great “spirit bear”. The coastline preserve also aids sea creatures with a safe haven such as whales.

Please watch this Ted video and share it with the people around you.

http://youtu.be/84zIj_EdQdM • accessed 2/20/12

Forests of the World

There are many different types of forest. Some are more abundant than others like the boreal and tropical forest. The largest tropical forest in the world is the Amazon River basin. Old growth forests are high in biodiversity and need special protection.

Map of the Amazon rainforest ecoregions as delineated by the WWF. Yellow line
approximately enclosed the Amazon drainage basin. National boundaries shown in black.
This is a satellite image from NASA.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest • accessed on 2/20/12

There is a delicate balance between human need and conservation. Forests provide wood and wood is used in a lot of different ways to make our lives better. Five percent of wood is used to make paper, and over half of all wood harvested is used for fuel. Rapidly being cleared are Tropical forest. There are many causes of deforestation. Forests are clear cut and burned to make room for farmland, roads, ranches, and other human needs.

In case study “Saving and African Eden” (www.mhhe.com/cunningham6e • accessed on 2/18/12) you have the study of Goualougo in the Republic of Congo where animals show little fear of humans. This land has been left alone and undisturbed by logging and human involvement. Goualougo is protected by two rivers that surround it and there is also thick forests on both sides. This area shows no signs of intrusion and could be the last area in the world untouched by man.

Case study “Protecting forest to Preserve Rain” (www.mhhe.com/cunningham6e • accessed on 2/18/12) talks about the importance of how a forest on lowlands can affect the clouds in the mountains. Costa Rica’s Monteverde Cloud forest Reserve has been protected for years but due to deforestation in the lowlands the participation is less and is affecting the life of the reserve. Pastures and croplands created by cutting down forests warms the air and dries it out. Only 18% of the lowland forest of Costa Rica remain.

Forest Management and Protection Forests

Humans get greedy and management of the forest is important in order to preserve life. Only one fourth of the planets forest are managed and tropical forest are being cleared one acre per second on the average around the clock.

REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) program is one of the world wide programs in place today that is trying to manage the forests of the world and set up programs for conservation.

http://www.un-redd.org/ • accessed 2/20/12

The case study of the “Disappearing Butterfly Forests” is about the monarch butterflies that fly from Canada and the United States to Mexico for the winter months. The conditions are just right for the butterflies in the oyamel forest. They cling to the trees and wait out the winter before fly back north. The area is one of the rarest and most endangered forests in Mexico. In 1986 they set up the Reserva de la Biosfera Mariposa Monarca but there is no enforcement to keep people from disturbing the area by logging, agriculture and recreational activities. (www.mhhe.com/cunningham6e • 2/18/12)

Different Types of Wood Harvesting

Temperate forests are at risk of becoming over harvested. There are several different types ways to harvesting wood. Clear cutting is one of the most common methods. This cuts all the trees in a given area and is time and cost effective for the logging companies. Clear cutting is very bad for forests. It creates erosion and loss of plant and animal life. Shelterwood havesting is where only mature trees and removed in a series of two or more cuts. Strip-cutting trees is when a narrow corridor of trees is harvested. Selective cutting is the least disruptive and only cuts a small percent of mature trees and takes the trees in rotations.

Logging road are also a big concern. These roads open up the forest to recreational use as well as logging.

In the case study of the “Forestry for the Seventh Generation” we learn about how the Menominee Nation occupies a reservation in Wisconsin. Throughout the years the Nation has managed a large forest and did a great job. They ran a lumber business and mill. They only cut down the worst trees and left the old growth trees. The forest flourished. (www.mhhe.com/cunningham6e • 2/18/12)

"Forests support many tribal communities across the world. Forests provide wood products, clean water, traditional products for subsistence like wildlife and plants, places for spiritual and traditional activities, as well as a source of jobs and economic income. There is an estimated 18 million acres of forestland on Indian reservations in the United States, according to the December 2003 Assessment of Indian Forests and Forest Management in the United States."(http://www.sustainabledevelopmentinstitute.org/NativeAmPortfolio/portfolios/IndianForestLand.asp • accessed 2/20/12)

The Northern Spotted Owl is a great example of the delicate balance between human needs and conservation. The Spotted Owl need a lot of space in old growth trees. The almost extinction of the owl but loggers out of business and the Spotted Owl in the headlines.

Forest Fires

http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/wildfires/ • accessed 2/20/12

Forest management used years of fire suppression but it has been concluded that some fires are needed to decrease the chances of a big fire. In resent years forest management has begun to use prescribed burns to decrease the chances of big fires.

"Prescribed burns are considered as the intentional ignition of grass, shrub, or forest fuels for specific purposes according to predetermined conditions.

Objectives

Fuel reduction
Expose mineral soil for seedbeds for regeneration of wind-disseminated species
Control of insects, diseases, and competing vegetation
Improvement of natural ecosystems, wildlife habitat, and range forest"

http://geology.isu.edu/geostac/Field_Exercise/wildfire/prescribedburns.htm • accessed on 2/20/12

Grasslands

Grasslands are important too. I personal grew up in South Dakota and have seen how truly remarkable the diversity in grasslands can be. The biggest threat to the prairies, savannas, steppes, open woodlands, and grasslands is farming. Another threat to these areas is over grazing.

Most ranchers are on board with new ideas of how they can improve the grasslands. Some idea that they are experimenting with is rotational grazing, and raising wild animals in addition to livestock. For example elk eat and forage more efficiently and can benefit the grasslands.

I took this photo looking towards Sturgis from Bear Butte in S.D.

Parks and Preserves

The world started preserving lands thousands of years ago with holy lands or sacred lands. The Greeks had sacred lands set aside for the gods. In the last fifty years the world has really started to develop and recognize the impotents of environmental conservation. Many counties have nature preserves. Venezuela calms to be protecting sixty percent of the land in their country. The U.S. only protects twenty-two percent.

The idea of preserving land so that nature can have a place to exist can sometime be opened up for the benefits of man. Such cases of this are seen in the U.S. with over recreational use, mining and other amusements.

It isn’t only the land that needs to be protected. We also need to protect our oceans. Marine ecosystems are in jeopardy from destructive harvesting methods, rising temperatures, coral mining and sediment fun off. Currently Australia has the biggest marine reserve in the world.

Table of Contents

Chapter 10
Sections 10.1, 10.2, 10.6

Topic:

Water: Resources and Pollution

Sub-topics:

Water Resources

Water Pollution

Healthy Water

Water Resources

The case study of when Lake Mead will go dry is disturbing. Not if, but when will it go dry! The southwest is in an eight-year drought. Lake Mead drops 12 feet each year. The Hoover Dam needs 1,050 feet in order to produce energy. Currently we are at 1,097 feet. L.A., Phoenix, and Los Vegas all depend of water and power from the Colorado River that feeds Lake Mead and Lake Powell. In 2017 there will not be enough water to power these cities. By 2021 the lakes will be gone.

http://www.good.is/post/lake-mead-is-drying-up/ • accessed 2/20/12

The cycle in which water goes though is called the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates into the atmosphere, it then rains or snows, water passes through living organisms, and water returns to the ocean. 75 percent of all precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by plants. Water has a residence time that it spends in any given compartment. Water molecule stay in the ocean for up to 3,000 years and it can be in the sky for ten days before if falls as moisture. The atmosphere has the smallest compartments at .001 percent but it is the most important for redistributed water.

2.4 percent of the world’s fresh water is tied up in glaciers, ice, and snow. Only .02 percent is accessible. Underground aquifers compartments contain the world’s largest resources. Aquifers have a zone of aeration that is the shallow layers of soil that have high contents of air and water. Lower levels you have the water table that is at the top of the zone of saturation. The zone of saturation is the lower soil that has pores that are filled with water. Most aquifers sit on top of stone that keeps the water from flowing down deeper.

The video below shows how devastating human involvement on water can be. I believe that the Salton Sea is the best example of this. The Salton Sea exists because we detoured the Colorado River. It two years to stop the flooding. Because the water was only fed by agriculture run off the water became very salty and everything died. This made the whole area uninhabitable.

http://youtu.be/otIU6Py4K_A • accessed on 2/20/12

Water Pollution

Point source pollution is easy to monitor and regulate. For example factories, power plants, coalmines, and oil well pollute from specific locations like drainpipes, ditches, and sewer out falls. Nonpoint pollution is hard to monitor and regulate. There is not a singular point of pollution leaking. You see this kind of pollution with runoff from city streets and feed lots.

Water can be polluted with pathogens, which cause diseases like typhoid, cholera, polio, and yellow fever. Many people die from polluted water every year.

The case study “A flood of Pigs” talks about how the state of North Caroline has a lot of pig farms. In 1999 Hurricane Floyd washed all of the pig sewage and dead pig from the storm into the water stream. Because of this they encountered a 350 square mile dead zone where not fish could survive. There is currently no regulation for treatment for animal sewage and when it floods it kills other species. (www.mhhe.com/cunningham6e • 2/18/12)

Inorganic pollutants like metals, salts and acids can affect water quality for humans and animals. Metals are minerals that accrue naturally and unnaturally in the environment. The most toxic metal is mercury. It can be ingested into the food chain and it reaches dangerous levels in top predators. Arsenic is also a natural mineral that we find in water that can be very harmful. The salts that the northern states use on the icy roads can find its way into the water supply and pollute the water.

http://www.healthparley.com/water-arsenic-the-decision-of-the-tar.html • accessed 2/20/12

“Arsenic in Drinking Water” is a case study that shows how the natural mineral arsenic gets in drinking water. It also states that it is stored in hair, bones and nails. Over population and stains on a water supply can drop water levels and stir up arsenic minerals. (www.mhhe.com/cunningham6e • 2/18/12)

Acids and bases are released into our environment by industrial processes. Industry also pollute with organic chemicals like pesticides. Thermal pollution disrupts species by releasing warm water from power plants into water. Species in that live in the water do not adapt to change in temperature and die. Sediment released into the water have bad affects by smothering small life and blocking the sunlight.

Healthy Water

The more oxygen that is in the water the better the water environment is for the organisms that depend on it and this is called (BOD) biochemical oxygen demand. In rivers there is a decline of oxygen down stream as it is used up.

Plastic isn’t good for you. People think that drinking water out of plastic bottles is better than tap water but that is incorrect. Tap water is tested more often than bottled water and is safer to drink. 80 percent of all plastic bottles end up in landfills. It takes 3 – 5 time the amount of water in the plastic container to create the plastic container than what it can hold.

http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=234814419945244&set=at.102015203225167.3021.100002500624738.100002485715746&type=1&theater • accessed on 2/24/12

Table of Contents

Chapter 7 (7.1 – 7.4)

Topic: Food and Agriculture

Subtopics:

Brazil’s soy

Food Trends of the World

Eating Healthy

The Foods That We Eat

Living Soil

Brazil’s soy

The case study at the beginning of this chapter addresses the conflicts that arise with farming. In Brazil they have discovered great land for farming soy. Big industry has come in to develop these farmlands to feed the world. In this process the small farmers and their families have been displaced and the greatest wetlands of South America face deforestation.

Food Trends of the World

We see trends in the world’s food market. There is an overabundance of food produced yet many people in the world go hungry due to lack of food distribution. We also see an increase of food cost. Lack of food security in developing countries is responsible for a lot of death. Developing countries can be plagued with war, political issues and instability that lead to bad food distribution. In the U.S. we see bad health due to diet because of poverty and job loss.

http://www.jamesnachtwey.com/ • accessed 2/24/12

"I have been a witness, and these pictures are

my testimony. The events I have recorded should

not be forgotten and must not be repeated."

-James Nachtwey-

Eating Healthy

We have see images of staring children with big bellies. This is caused from a malnourishment of protein. A more widespread problem is people going without vitamin A, folic acid and iodine that are found in vegetables. 350,000 people go blind each year due to a vitamin A deficiency. Large goiters can form on the thyroid gland due to a lack of iodine.

Scientist of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich created a form of rice that has been genetically engineered to produce vitamins. This rice is called “Golden Rice” or by critics “Frankenfoods”. One concern is that this rice may have bad effects on the environment. (www.mhhe.com/cunningham6e • 2/24/12)

In contrary to starvation, over eating is a growing concern. There is a growth of heart attach, stroke and diabetes in wealthy nations. In these countries diets of sugars, fats, and processed foods are to blame. 400,000 people die each year in the U.S. due to obesity related illnesses.

The solution to reducing hunger is not increasing production. We need better management and distribution.

http://www.thenewsburner.com/2011/12/04/fat-america-infographic/ • accessed 2/24/12

The Food That We Eat

There are many different edible plants and animals in the world but we mainly feed on a selected few. Crops like corn, soy, wheat, and rice are consumed the most. Some of these are consumed less directly such as corn and soy that are used to feed livestock. They are also used in sweeteners, oils and other products.

Eating meat is a great source of protein but it is considerably more expensive than crops. You have to take into consideration the whole process of growing an animal for food and how that goes into the overall cost of meat. Technology has played a big part in be able to produce meat for the masses. (CAFO) Confined animal feeding operations has been a big player. Animals are housed and fed corn, soy, and animal protein. This ensures the rapid growth of animal for meat consumption. These meat houses have to use antibiotics heavily and they can be the cause of local water and air pollution.

http://youtu.be/EWt9Ex1Mlo8 • accessed 2/24/12

The world relies on eating fish for protein. In some parts of the world this is their main source of protein. There are currently no regulations in the world when it comes to fishing. It is a free for all. There are many destructive fishing techniques that are devastation for the environment and reproduction of fish for the future.

The current imbalance of food and consumption is a growing problem. We need to focus more as a community on the potential problems and current problems. I feel that knowledge is key and that we should talk about these issues openly. Share these issues you have read about with your friends and family.

Living Soil

Soil is so much more that dirt. I can even be considered an ecological community of it own consisting of many living things like: organic molecules, bacteria, fungi, insects and bugs. Plants need the nutrients in soil in order grow. Over use of farm land can deplete the land of nutrients.

There are all different kinds of soils and mixtures. There are six main components that give variety to soils they are: sand and gravel, silt and clay, dead organic material, soil fauna and flora, water, and air.

Soil consists of layers. The first layer is the surface litter layer called “O” for organic horizon. Then you have the A horizon that is the surface soil and it contains organic matter, living organisms, and inorganic minerals. Under that layer you have a zone of leaching that moves the matter downward to layer B. Layer or horizon B is called Subsoil and it is made up of iron, aluminum, humic compounds, and clay that has leached down form the top. Lower you have the C layer that is mostly rock fragments and broken down inorganic minerals. The last layer of the soil horizons is the Parent Material. This material is the material on which the soil builds on. The food that we eat comes mostly from the organically rich A horizon.

http://www.uvm.edu/place/analyze/soil_horizons.html • accessed 2/24/12

Chapter 11

Topic: Geology and Resources

Subtopic:

Earth’s Components

Rocks and Minerals

Mineralogy and Economic Geology

Removing Resources

Waste Not Want Not

Earthquakes

Volcanoes

Flooding

Earth’s Components

The world is full of resources but it is also full of geologic hazards like volcanoes and earthquakes.

The earth is made up of layers. In the center of the earth we have the core, which is made up of a dense, hot mass of metals. Surrounding the core layer is the mantle layer. This layer is less dense and is made up of oxygen, silicon and magnesium. The outer layer of the earth is called the earth’s crust. The crust is thicker on the continents that in the oceans.

http://www.ducksters.com/science/composition_of_the_earth.php • accessed 3/3/12

Earthquakes reshape the earth’s continents by a process called the Tectonic Process.

Tectonic plates are large mosaic sections of the earth’s crust that slowly move. Magma, from volcanoes comes up through the gaps between two plates.

In the ocean we have the mid-ocean ridges where the magma has created a large underwater mountain range, the largest mountain range in the world. With the constant slow movement of the plates we can predict that in 30 million years L.A. will pass San Francisco. When looking into the past we can see evidence that at one time Antarctica and Australia were once connected to Africa.

These plates go through a slow cycle of being recycled, for example if one plate is on top of another then the bottom plate will be forced down into the earth. This subducted plate will melt and then rise back to the surface as magma.

http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/tectonic.htm • accessed 3/3/12

Rocks and Minerals

Minerals are a natural, inorganic solid that occurs with a certain chemical composition that has a crystal structure. Minerals are only considers minerals in solid crystal form. Rocks are solid masses that have a mix of one or more minerals.

Three rock classifications are: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary. Most rocks on earth are igneous, which means they have solidified from molten, magma or lava. Deep under the earth’s surface rocks are squeezed, heated, and folded into metamorphic rocks. We are all familiar with the metamorphic rock, the diamond; it is created under these extreme conditions. Sedimentary rocks are created by the combination of loose grains and other rocks that are combined by time and pressure. Sandstone is a wonderful example of a sedimentary rock.

Rocks and minerals on the surface of the earth go through a process called weathering. One examples of this is river rocks being rounded by the flowing water. Chemical weathering of rock is when the surrounding elements weather a stone. Oxidation is a form of chemical weathering. When the rocks and minerals are weathered little particles as are carried away by the wind, water, or ice. This is called sedimentation.

http://scenery.cultural-china.com/en/113S3040S11553.html • accessed 3/3/12

Mineralogy and Economic Geology

When testing the earth for minerals we find more than 4,400 different kinds. Studying the minerals that have value because of their use or beauty is called economic mineralogy. In 1872 the U.S. encouraged mining of public lands to try and build up the economy. Many environmentalists have tried to stop this but so far Congress still allows mining on public lands.

Metals are minerals. We heavily use iron, aluminum, copper, chromium, and nickel. Most metals are mined in South America but are used by the United States, China, Europe, and Japan.

Precious metals are big ingredients in green energy and electronics. Shortages in these minerals would hinder the green energy development. China has limited their exports of the rare metals. These are elements that are essential to the modern electronics, high efficiency lights, lightweight batteries, lasers, and the hybrid cars.

In mining the miners use strong acid slurry to remove the metals from the ore-bearing rocks. Large amounts of toxic water are produced and stored. This toxic water can leak and cause damage to the water and ground.

The most consumed nonmetal mineral resources are sand and gravel. We use sand and gravel for roads, concrete construction and many other things. Other great nonmetal minerals in high use are limestone, evaporates, glass, sulfur, and gemstones.

Metals and gemstones have been desired for their monetary value. Countries that are rich in these minerals have fallen into violent states due to people warring over these mineral most notably South Africa and the blood diamonds.

http://youtu.be/aaqQjIzIbiY • accessed 3/3/12

Oil, coal, and natural gas are not minerals because they do not crystallize but they are considered part of the economic mineralogy because of their importance in our lives. These geologic deposits create most the energy in the world.

Removing Resources

We have come to rely on geological resources for our every day lives. They light our way at night and warm our homes but there is a down side. The way that we mine or pump these resources out of the earth can sometimes have severe environmental consequences. The EPA has found more than 100 toxic pollutants from mines in the U.S. Chemicals are used to separate metals from the minerals and water contamination is a large environmental problem.

There are many different kinds of mining techniques. One of the most visually disturbing is open-pit mining. You also have strip-mining and underground mining. This subject is very personal to me. My father has been an underground miner since he was a young man. Underground mining is very dangerous you can have tunnels collapse, natural gas can explode, and water seeping into the mineshafts can dissolve toxic minerals. My father got his start in the uranium mines in Wyoming but in the 1980 president Reagan decided not to make nuclear bombs anymore and closed down uranium production. We then moved to S.D. where my father mined gold for the Black Hills gold mine. I was able to see first hand the visual devastation of an open-pit mine. Currently they have closed down the Black Hills gold mine and my father is working for the government in Montana. He works for MSHA. MSHA works to regulate mines in the U.S. for safety of the miners and the environment.

Methane gas is a clean burning source of energy. Currently in Wyoming the industry is proposing 140,000 well for extraction. Although this is a clean burning fuel there are drawbacks in obtaining this fuel. Some are the massive amounts of roads, pipelines, service facilities that all have an impact on wildlife and remote areas. The worst of the environmental impacts of methane gas mining is the effect on the water supplies. The process of removing the gas produces up to 75,000 liters of salty water. Water is also pumped into the ground mixed with sand and toxic chemicals when drilling. This can contaminate underground water aquifers.

A newer form of mining is called mountain top removal. In West Virginia the coal industry has been removing the tops of mountains to get to the coal. They dump the unwanted materials into the valleys. It is said that over 560 miles of streams have been buried. The EPA has issued these restrictions on this type of mining because of the Clean Water Act.

http://www.ei.lehigh.edu/envirosci/enviroissue/amd/index.html • accessed 3/3/12

There are over 550,000 abandoned mines in the U.S. Most of these mines went bankrupt and closed down with out any effort to restore the land. They left behind large ponds of chemical waste to decay.

Waste Not Want Not

After studying this chapter I really see the value in conservation and recycling. “less waste to dispose of, less land lost to mining, and less consumption of money, energy, and water resources.” “Less is more!”

Recycling uses less energy that mining. Minimills take iron and steel and process them into new product. New materials are also replacing the need to mine new materials. Plastic is a great example of a new material that has replaced a lot of metal and glass products.

http://www.sms-concast.ch/en/products_service/minimill.html • accessed 3/3/12

Earthquake

Chapter eleven starts off with a case study talking about the recent earthquake in Haiti. This is a poor island in the Caribbean and most of the buildings are not make to withstand earthquakes. The aftermath of the earthquake was escalated due to the poor economics in the area. People started looting and Haiti became a very dangerous place for relief workers. The people were experiencing homelessness, bad water, missing family members and food shortages.

Tectonic activity is what causes most earthquakes. The earth is made up of giant plates that shift and move. Areas that the plates come together are called fault lines. Plate tectonics or the moving of the plates is what causes the earth to shake. Tsunami is a sea swells that are caused by earthquakes and can break as high as 200 feet. There have been studies that the rising and lowering of water can induce an earthquake.

Volcanoes

The source of most of the earth’s crust is volcanoes and undersea magma vents. Weathered volcanic soil is considered to be the most richest and fertile. However, volcanoes are very dangerous. Like earthquakes they are unpredictable and leave little to no time for escape. Hot lava is not the only dangers; you also have a rain of ash, dust, and sulfur.

http://www.fukubonsai.com/bi3.html • accessed 3/3/12

Flooding

Rivers have floodplains. When water levels raise the excess water will run off into these flat plains. The ground in these floodplains is futile and attractive for developers. Floodplains can remain dry for years and may only flood once every 100 years. Due to this fact communities develop in floodplains and when a flood comes many people are killed. Out of all types of natural disasters floods kill more people and damage more property than any other natural disaster.

Works Cited

Chapters 6

Chapter 10 (10.1,10.2, 10.6)

Chapter 7 (7.1 – 7.4)

Chapter 11

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest • accessed on 2/20/12